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Participant observation
Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative research paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology and (European) ethnology, less so in sociology, communication studies, human geography and social psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time. The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronisław Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of sociology.
==History and development==
Participant observation was used extensively by Frank Hamilton Cushing in his study of the Zuni Indians in the later part of the nineteenth century, followed by the studies of non-Western societies by people such as Bronisław Malinowski,〔Malinowski, Bronisław (1929) ''The sexual life of savages in north-western Melanesia: an ethnographic account of courtship, marriage and family life among the natives of the Trobriand Islands, British New Guinea''. New York: Halcyon House.〕 E.E. Evans-Pritchard,〔Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940) ''The Nuer, a description of the modes livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic people''. Oxford: Clarendon Press.〕 and Margaret Mead〔Mead, Margaret (1928) ''Coming of age in Samoa: a psychological study of primitive youth for Western civilisation''. New York: William Morrow & Co.〕 in the first half of the twentieth century. It emerged as the principal approach to ethnographic research by anthropologists and relied on the cultivation of personal relationships with local informants as a way of learning about a culture, involving both observing and participating in the social life of a group. By living with the cultures they studied, researchers were able to formulate first hand accounts of their lives and gain novel insights. This same method of study has also been applied to groups within Western society, and is especially successful in the study of sub-cultures or groups sharing a strong sense of identity, where only by taking part may the observer truly get access to the lives of those being studied. The postmortem publication of Grenville Goodwin's decade of work as a participant-observer with the Western Apache,〔Spicer, Edward H. "Grenville Goodwin", ''Arizona and the West'', Vol. 3 No. 3, Autumn 1961, pp. 201-204〕 ''The Social Organization of the Western Apache'', established him as a prominent figure in the field of ethnology.
Since the 1980s, some anthropologists and other social scientists have questioned the degree to which participant observation can give veridical insight into the minds of other people.〔Geertz, Clifford (1984) "From the Native’s Point of View: on the nature of anthropological understanding," in ''Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion''. Edited by R. A. Shweder and R. LeVine, pp. 123-136. New York: Cambridge University Press.〕〔Rosaldo, Renato (1986) "From the door of his tent: the fieldworker and the inquisitor," in ''Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography''. Edited by J. Clifford and G. E. Marcus. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.〕 At the same time, a more formalized qualitative research program known as grounded theory, initiated by Glaser and Strauss,〔Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm L. Strauss (1967) ''The Discovery of Grounded Theory: strategies for qualitative research''. Chicago: Aldine.〕 began gaining currency within American sociology and related fields such as public health. In response to these challenges, some ethnographers have refined their methods, either making them more amenable to formal hypothesis-testing and replicability, or framing their interpretations within a more carefully considered epistemology.〔
The development of participant-observation as a research tool has therefore not been a haphazard process, but instead has practiced a great deal of self-criticism and review. It has as a result become specialized. Visual anthropology can be viewed as a subset of methods of participant-observation, as the central questions in that field have to do with how to take a camera into the field, while dealing with such issues as the observer effect.〔Collier, John Jr and Malcolm Collier, ''Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method'', 1986.〕 Issues with entry into the field have evolved into a separate subfield. Clifford Geertz's famous essay on how to approach the multi-faceted arena of human action from an observational point of view, in ''Interpretation of Cultures'' uses the simple example of a human wink, perceived in a cultural context far from home.
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